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The Edict of Nantes (1598) was issued by Henry IV of France to grant the Calvinist Protestants of France (aka Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. The main concern was civil unity and the Edict separated civil from religious unity and opened a path for secularism and tolerance.However the Edict was revoked in 1685 by Louis XIV, the "Sun King", grandson of Henry IV, and declared Protestantism illegal with the Edict of Fontainebleau. Protestants chose to leave France, moving to Great Britain, Prussia, the Dutch Republic, Switzerland and the new French colonies in North America. Huguenots also settled in South Africa. This exodus deprived France of many of its most skilled and industrious individuals, who would aid France's rivals in Holland and England.The edict Of Potsdam issued by Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, in 1685 gave French Protestants safe passage to Brandenburg-Prussia, offered them tax-free status for ten years, and allowed them to hold church services in their native French.Peace of Westphalia Ended the Thirty Years' War (1618?1648), a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire. That war was fought primarily (though not exclusively) in Germany and at various points involved most of the countries of Europe. Peace of AugsburgSigned in 1555 between Charles V of Spain and an alliance of Lutheran princes from the Holy Roman Empire , at the imperial city of Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany.It officially ended the religious struggle between these two groups and made the legal division of Western Christianity permanent within the Holy Roman Empire. The Peace allowed German princes to select either Lutheranism or Catholicism within the domains they controlled, ultimately reaffirming the independence they had over their states. Both relate to Wars of Religion in Europe. (Good it was not my test, I had enough time to ... remember 8) )
What about enclosures ?The Inclosure Acts (between 1760 and 1820s) were a series of United Kingdom Acts of Parliament which enclosed open fields and common land in the country. This meant that the rights that people once held to graze animals on these areas were denied.It was frequently believed that Parliamentary enclosures contributed to a proletarianization of a workforce that was primed for work in the factories of the industrial revolution.
The English came into their French possessions through marriage and through Williams original domain of Normandy.Yes at one time French was the language of international Diplomacy and of the English Royal House. That was before the disastrous absolutism of the Bourbons and French Revolution. It also helps that the British managed to colonize so much of the world, so successfully, for so long. Then again, Latin used to be the lingua franca too.The English attempts at to gain possessions in France were not so much colonizing as outright attempts at conquest.
The reason why Plantagenet Kings were speaking French is that they had their roots in the French regions of Anjou and Normandy.Lingua Franca literally means "Frankish language". This originated from the Arabic custom of referring to all Europeans as Franks. During the Middle Ages, the lingua franca was Greek in the parts of Europe, Middle East and Northern Africa where the Byzantine Empire held hegemony, and Latin was primarily used in the rest of Europe. Latin, for a significant portion of the expansion of the Roman Catholic Church, was used as the basis of the Church.From the 17th to the 20th centuries, France was the leading power of Europe; thanks to this, together with the influence of the Enlightenment, French was the lingua franca of educated Europe, especially with regards to the arts, literature, and diplomacy.English is the current lingua franca and it has replaced French as the lingua franca of diplomacy since World War II. The rise of English in diplomacy began in 1919, in the aftermath of World War I, when the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as in French, the dominant language used in diplomacy at that time.
In Jean-Jacques Rousseau's treatise on education, Emile: Or, On Education, the one book the main character is allowed to read before the age of twelve is Robinson Crusoe. Rousseau wants Emile to identify himself as Crusoe so he could rely upon himself for all of his needs. In Rousseau's view, Emile needs to imitate Crusoe's experience, allowing necessity to determine what is to be learned and accomplished. This is one of the main themes of Rousseau's educational model.
So is this the first time England started having an expansionist policy?
Had the Plantagenets, as at one time seemed likely, succeeded in uniting all France under their government, it is probable that England would never have had an independent existence. Her princes, her lords, her prelates, would have been men differing in race and language from the artisans and the tillers of the earth. The revenues of her great proprietors would have been spent in festivities and diversions on the banks of the Seine. The noble language of Milton and Burke would have remained a rustic dialect, without a literature, a fixed grammar, or a fixed orthography, and would have been contemptuously abandoned to the use of boors. No man of English extraction would have risen to eminence, except by becoming in speech and habits a Frenchman........ (in T.B. Macaulay, History of England)The ruling class of the Angevin Empire was French speaking.
BTW, pre-Norman Ireland has my vote for the most dysfunctional country in Medieval Europe.
How "dysfunctional" were they ?
TMO Both America and Europe, Russia included, are “condemned” to live together. Look at the Copenhagen summit, especially to the Sudanese ambassador's quote: " Lumumba Stanislaus Di-Aping, the Sudanese negotiator, said the accord spelled "incineration" for Africa and compared it to the Nazis sending "6 million people into furnaces" in the Holocaust." http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8422133.stm then it's a communist conspiracy... Whatever.This is reminding me about Henry Ford and Hitler... http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/nov98/nazicars30.htm Ideals vs personal profits
But I think that many Americans feel strongly attached to the ethos of the first Americans who were led by their own ideals and were victorious over a stronger opponent. It forged the American soul of the patriot, a soul that is sure of its ideals and will strive for them, whether it is with the help of others on independently. They feel that this patriot soul has helped them throughout the ages and win two world wars....and to stare down communism.
Today, these same Americans feel that Europeans aren't very good allies. Sure, they are generally on the same side of things, but they are often weak and hindered by emasculated policies. They are also motivated by a level of envy in regard to American power, and so the American soul is skeptical of the general European motive. The American soul guards its rights, its freedoms, and its national sovereignty.
Alone ?Spain joined in full the cause of the American Revolution by declaring war on England on June 21 1779.In early 1776, France set up a major program of aid to the Americans, and the Spanish secretly added funds. Each country spent one million "livres tournaises" to buy munitions.The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress, as Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778, significantly becoming the first country to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence.Later Spain (in 1779) and the Dutch (1780) became allies of the French, leaving the British Empire to fight a global war alone without major allies, and requiring it to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic.Siege of Yorktown: In October 1781 under a combined siege by the French and Continental armies, the British, under the command of General Cornwallis, surrendered. However, Cornwallis was so embarrassed at his defeat that he had to send his second in command to surrender for him.And so on ...
The American soul guards its rights, its freedoms, and its national sovereignty.
Just like any sovereign nation, don't you think what you call " a level of envy in regard to American power", envy can be replaced by "its rights, its freedoms, and its national sovereignty" ?? You have a beginning of "virile" explanation. 😀Rome collapsed a long time ago; you and most of people here know a lot about it. "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it." (George Santayana)
The real Communist conspiracy, a research by US scientists.Vodka vs Whiskyhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/8416431.stm [attachment deleted by admin]
Another kind of information:Who's to blame for warming ?http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8359629.stm Climate scepticism:http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8376286.stm
