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History, politics, and culture articles and forum discussions.

Greece

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The fall of Athens

In 407 B.C. and again in 405 B.C.. the Spartans in alliance with their old enemies, the Persians, destroyed two Athenian Fleets.

Although Athens had suffered defeats before, notably in Sicily in 415 B.C., they had always managed to rally and beat back the Spartans. This time, however, Athens could not make up the losses.

The Spartan fleet soon took control of the mouth of the Dardanelles which stopped Athens’ grain supply.

In February 404 B.C., the Spartan fleet blockaded the Athenian port of Piraeus. The city was subjected to three months of starvation until Athens surrendered in April.

The Spartans exacted harsh terms from the defeated Athenians. They demanded that the city walls be torn down, that the Athenian fleet be handed over, that exiles be allowed to return, and that Athens should forthwith become an ally of Sparta.

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The availability of citrus in the ancient world

I came across an article about the lemons and other citrus fruits in the ancient Roman world.  According to research done by an Israeli archaeobotanist, the citron was the first citrus fruit to make it to the western Mediterranean around the third or second century B.C. (probably through Persia).  The lemon?  That had to wait even longer, and was not widely available:

It took another 400 years for the lemon (Citruslimon) to reach the Mediterranean area. Lemons, too, were owned by the elite class. “This means that for more than a millennium, citron and lemon were the only citrus fruits known in the Mediterranean basin,” Langgut said. (The Mediterranean basin would have included the countries around the sea.)

This is interesting considering how much we identify the lemon with Greek culinary recipes today, or with Italian limoncello.  It’s surprising to imagine commoner life without kinds of fruits that we take for granted today.  However, I think it’s safe to say that they had their fill of other delectable items, such as grapes.

Dancing under the orange tree in Sandro Botticelli’s Primavera. The work was probably commissioned for the marriage of a Medici family member in 1482.

The article goes on to give the arrival dates of some other citrus fruits to the (western) Mediterranean.  Here’s a timeline of approximate dates:

  • Citron – third/second century B.C.
  • Lemon – second century A.D.
  • Sour orange – tenth century
  • Lime – tenth century
  • Pomelo – tenth century
  • Sweet orange – fifteenth century
  • Mandarin – nineteenth century

The powerful Medici is known for appropriating the image of the orange tree as their family symbol in Florence by the fifteenth century.  Would this have been the sour or sweet orange that they chose?  I think the novelty of the newly-arrive sweet orange, as well as the taste (which was presumably more palatable than the sour version), means that it was probably the chosen fruit that we see in Medici imagery.

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Why did Ancient Greece fall to the Macedonians?

Ancient Greece is recognized as one of the most fascinating and influential civilizations in history. It was a period marked by unparalleled artistic, philosophical, and scientific achievements. The Greeks developed innovative ideas, such as democracy, which have influenced the world over the centuries. However, the fall of ancient Greece was an event that changed the course of history. The Macedonian conquest was the catalyst that ended this era of flourishing prosperity.

Rise of Macedon: Philip II and Alexander the Great

Macedon was a kingdom located north of Greece, and during the 4th century BC, it emerged as a dominant power. Philip II, the King of Macedon, transformed his kingdom into a formidable military force. He introduced new tactics, such as the phalanx, and reformed the army to make it more professional. Philip’s son, Alexander the Great, succeeded him and continued his father’s conquests. Alexander’s military strategy was aggressive and swift, and he conquered most of Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, and parts of India.

Conquest of Greece: Battle of Chaeronea and Corinth

The Greeks were not prepared for the Macedonian invasion. Philip II consolidated his power in Greece, and many Greek city-states submitted to his rule. However, some resisted, such as Athens and Thebes. In 338 BC, Philip defeated the Greeks in the Battle of Chaeronea, and Greece became a vassal state of Macedon. Alexander the Great continued his father’s legacy and conquered Greece with ease. The only resistance he faced was in the city of Thebes, which he destroyed as an example to other Greek city-states. In 146 BC, Greece became a Roman protectorate, and the era of Greek independence ended.

End of an Era: Hellenistic Period and Legacy of Macedonian Rule

The period after Alexander’s conquests is called the Hellenistic Period, which lasted from 323 to 31 BC. It was a time of significant cultural exchange between the Greeks and the conquered peoples. New cities were founded, and the Greek language and culture spread throughout the empire. However, the Macedonian rule had a profound impact on Greece. The Greek city-states lost their independence, and the political power shifted to a centralized monarchy. The Macedonian influence also transformed the arts, literature, and philosophy of Greece. Nevertheless, the Macedonian conquest marked the end of Greek independence and the beginning of a new era in history.

The Macedonian conquest ended the flourishing era of ancient Greece, which had a profound impact on world history. The rise of Macedon, led by Philip II and Alexander the Great, transformed the political and military landscape of the Mediterranean. The conquest of Greece marked the end of an era, and the Hellenistic Period ushered in a new political, social, and cultural order. The legacy of the Macedonian conquest can still be seen in the art, literature, and philosophy of Greece today. Despite the fall of ancient Greece, its legacy remains a source of inspiration and admiration for generations to come.

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