The Santa Muerte cult could probably best be described as a set of ritual practices offered on behalf a supernatural personification of death. The personification is female, probably because the Spanish word for death, muerte, is feminine and possibly also because this personification is a sort of counterpart to the Virgin of Guadalupe.To believers, the entity exists within the context of Catholic theology and is comparable to other purely supernatural beings, namely archangels. The cult involves prayers, rituals, and offerings, which are given directly to Santa Muerte in expectation of and tailored to the fulfillment of specific requests. These bear some resemblance to other traditions.The origin of the cult is uncertain; it has only been expanding recently. The cult appears to be closely associated with crime, criminals, and those whose lives are directly affected by crime. Criminals seem to identify with Santa Muerte and call upon the saint for protection and power, even when committing crimes. They will adorn themselves with her paraphernalia and render her respect that they do not give to other spiritual entities.Many if not most practitioners seem to consider themselves to be, more or less, good, practicing Catholics. Unlike a conventional saint, Santa Muerte definitely appears to be the object of worship rather than a simple intercessor, which is a significant divergence from Catholic doctrine, although the actual practice is not unheard of in the mysteries associated with other Catholic saint traditions, at least unofficially. The name itself is easily confused in translation. Some have translated Santa Muerte into English as “Saint Death”. Although this conveys the concept accurately, the correct literal translation is “Sacred Death” or “Holy Death”.Some of the nicknames are simply variations, including Santísima Muerte [Most Holy Death or Very Holy Death], Sagrada Muerte [Sacred Death], Querida Muerte [Beloved Death], or, in Argentina, San la Muerte [Saint Death – a Masculine variation] Other labels suggest mystical interpretations of her nature, role, and/or relationship to the devotee, such as Poderosa Señora [Powerful Lady], La Comadre [The Co-Mother – possibly a pun on “Co-Redeemer”], La Madrina [The Godmother – notably used in Mexican prisons], or La Hermana [The Sister].Color itself seems to be very important in the Santa Muerte cult. Statues dressed in particular colors represent certain powers or attributes. Similarly, when a devotee lights a candle, or a combination of candles, to Santa Muerte, the color of the candle used corresponds to the desired result. Gold represents economic power, success, and money. Devotees maintain that this color is suited for businessmen and merchants. The natural bone color is believed to promote peace and harmony, particularly among neighbors, and is intended for homes and businesses. The color red is associated with love and passion, as well as emotional stability; it is recommended for couples. White represents purification and defense against negative energy, particularly in situations when there is envy among relatives. Blue is used to help improve mental concentration. Green is the color used to help people with legal problems or matters of justice; it is the color used most often by lawyers. Yellow is the color used for healing from diseases. It is frequently used by drug addicts and alcoholics who are undergoing rehabilitation. The color purple also is purported to bring health. Black represents complete protection, particularly against black magic and hostile spirits associated with Santeria, Palo Mayombe, or voodoo. Black also is the color used by sorcerers to cause harm to their enemies.Other aspects of Santa Muerte iconography have significance as well. Devotees of the saint interpret the sickle, often carried in the right hand, to represent justice, while the globe, often in the left hand, represents dominion over the world. Sometimes, an image of Santa Muerte is holding an ear of corn, which apparently represents generosity. Such symbols are very useful for identifying cult iconography. Whereas the image of the Grim Reaper is a relatively common image and in and of itself does not signify any cult association, when the Death figure is displayed with the ear of corn, a crown, or possibly a globe or scale, it does indicate a Santa Muerte association. The icon itself can come in many forms. Devotees wear small amulets and medals, commonly called milagros in Mexico. They also keep statues and statuettes for offerings. These practices seem to be more or less reminiscent of Catholic saint worship. However, unlike the case with mainstream Catholic practices, devotees of Santa Muerte, particularly incarcerated cult practitioners, will sometimes take the additional step of having the icon tattooed onto their bodies.[ This has been referred to as an offering of skin. In some cases, this is an image of Santa Muerte; in others, it seems to be the entire amulet that is tattooed.[ Such an application is not merely innovative; it is telling. While tattooing has become a mainstream practice in much of North America even among the middle class, in Latin America, tattoos remain the hallmarks of criminal affiliation and imprisonment.The beliefs associated with the cult appear to be relatively consistent. Santa Muerte devotees attend to their practice by lighting candles and leaving offerings while reciting prayers, often ritual prayers, in hopes of receiving favors. Such offerings draw upon Christian symbolism. Tequila, for example is a representation of the chalice of Christ. An apple represents original sin. There appears to be a tradition about what sorts of offerings are appropriate. Santa Muerte has been described as jealous about what offerings are given to her. However, gifts that are somehow personal or in keeping with other religious offerings are considered acceptable. Offerings are not given willy-nilly; there is a recipe and ritual associated with each offering, so as to ensure the granting of the desired effect.Appropriate offerings can include money, flowers, candy, alcohol, tobacco, fruits, water, bread, or incense. Money is a preferred offering, particularly in businesses, when the profits from the first sale of the day are given. Flowers of various types are acceptable, but should be fresh. White roses are normally used for healing or health and are considered to be the preferred form. Red roses are used for love. Candy offerings are also a matter of personal preference, although chocolate is common, particularly for love, and honey is considered to be a standard offering. Wines and liquors are common offerings, especially tequila, rum, and sherry, as well as dark beer; these are usually served in glass bottles or cups but not plastic. Cigars and cigarettes are among the most preferred offerings; they should be lit. Smoke blown over the image is used to purify the altar. Fresh fruit is also used as an offering. Red apples are the commonest offering but other fruits are often left. The color of the fruit can correspond to the benefit sought, in a way comparable to candles. Water is considered to be a crucial offering and should be clear and still, preferably from a tap. Bread is also offered frequently, as is incense. In the case of incense, different types of incense are used for different ends, in varieties that are sold by vendors of esoteric commodities.Just as the offerings are presented in a formulaic manner, the prayers themselves are often highly structured, in a format that resembles Christian collects. Some prayers even refer to the Trinity: “In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, made of pure light, I implore you to grant me the favors I should request of you until the final day, hour, and moment at which your divine majesty orders me to come before your presence. Desired Death of my heart, do not abandon me from your protection.”Similarities also manifest in the attempt at comprehensiveness that occurs in prayers. This occurs in protection prayers: “Oh, Most Santa Muerte, I call upon you so that, through your image, you may free me from all dangers, whether [these dangers] are physical or from witchcraft, and that through this sacred flame you might purify my body from all charms and curses and that you also bring love, peace, and abundance. So be it.” It also occurs in prayers for success and wealth: “Desired Death of my heart, do not abandon me from [your] protection and I ask your blessing on this devotee of yours and that also you bring success, bring personal and economic prosperity, and take from me all natural or caused disease. So be it.” Of further interest, the ending “so be it” is a translation of the traditional Christian prayer ending, “Amen”.The formula is also applied to curses: “Death of my heart, do not abandon me from your protection and do not permit (name of enemy) a single moment of peace. Molest him each moment, mortify him and worry him so that he always thinks about me and does what I want.”Some phrases to understand:El poder de las tres muertes = The power of the three deathsLa mano de la muerte: para que se cumplan nuestros más caros anhelos = The hand of death: to fulfill the most dear yearningsRitual para alejar a las malas amistades de nuestra pareja = Ritual to send away bad friendships from our partnerRitual contra la magia negra = Ritual against black magicRitual para alejar un amante = Ritual to send away a loverRitual para alejar a los novios = Ritual to send away fiancésPara que tu pareja te ayude económicamente = So that your partner helps you economicallyPara que no entren chismes o nertía negative en tu casa o negocio = So that gossip or negative energy does not enter your home or businessVelación a la Santa Muerte para que nos paguen una deuda = Prayer to Santa Muerte so that a debt is paid to usRitual para socorrer a quienes estan presos = Ritual to comfort those in prisonLa balanza de la justicia: ritual para resolver problemas legales = The balance of justice: ritual to resolve legal problemsRitual para quienes serán sometidos a una intervención quirúrgica = Ritual for those who will undergo surgeryBálsamo de la Santa Muerte para que marche bien tu negocio = Balsam of Santa Muerte so that your business does wellRitual para incrementar las ventas en tu negocio = Ritual to increase sales in your businessRitual para limpiar tu dinero = Ritual to clean your moneyTres recetas sencillas para obtener dinero = Three simple prescriptions to obtain moneyRitual del chocolate para dominar al amante, novio o esposo = Ritual of chocolate to dominate your lover, fiancé or spouseBaño de la Santa Muerte para el amor = Bath of Santa Muerte for loveNovena para ligar a una persona = Novena to bind a personPara un amor difícil = For a difficult loveAmuleto de la Santa Muerte para tu automóvil = Amulet of Santa Muerte for your automobile (used for protection when buying a vehicle, when suffering frequent vehicle problems, or suffering accidents, or when vehicle is jinxed)Para retirar al mal vecino = To send away a bad neighborRitual para que se alejen las malas amistades de nuestros hijos = Ritual to send away bad friends of your childrenOtro ritual para alejar malas amistades = Another Ritual to send away bad friendsVelación a la Santa Muerte para que nuestros hijos no abandonen los estudios = Prayer to Santa Muerte so that our children do not abandon their studiesVelación para que un matrimonio no se realice = Prayer so that a marriage does not happenThe cult is associated with indigenous peoples, blending Catholic and pagan beliefs. The cult is associated with people on the fringe of Mexican society: slaves, indigenous peoples, the poor, and criminals.If Santa Muerte is associated with one crime in particular, it seems to be kidnapping. In addition to the major drug cartels, the cult also seems to have reached the infamous Latin American youth gangs. Some criminals seem to treat Santa Muerte with a respect that they do not extend to other religious figures.Illegal migrants have been praying to Santa Muerte, carrying images of Santa Muerte in their clothing and giving thanks to her for their crossing.[ It is through these illegal migrants that Santa Muerte seems to be spreading to the U.SThe Santa Muerte cult is anti-establishment and appears to glorify criminal behavior. Although not all members of the cult are criminals, all live an existence that is dominated by crime. The cult seems to be linked closely to prisons, prisoners, and family members of prisoners. It is also associated with at least two organized criminal groups – the Gulf Cartel and the Mara Salvatrucha. Although it does not appear that most practitioners would commit crimes on behalf of the cult, some criminals might use it as an impetus to commit a crime or to increase the scale and violence of their crimes. Furthermore, because of the inherent danger in crime, the invocation of death itself as patron has a manifest appeal.Although not all Santa Muerte cult members are criminals themselves, it would be misleading to describe them as independent of crime. In most cases, if they are not criminals they are people whose lives are touched, if not dominated by crime. If not their own crimes the of family members, neighbors, or people with whom they interact daily.People give numerous reasons for giving offerings to Santa Muerte. Some still consider themselves Catholic. Some say that they are disillusioned with traditional Catholicism. Others say that Santa Muerte has granted miracles and favors that other saints have not. Still others claim that they find Santa Muerte more welcoming because she does not distinguish between good and evil practitioners.

Is it possible that Josephus was unaware that Herod’s successors antedated the commencement of their reigns?  There are two possible answers.  One is that it was not politically expedient for him to publicly expose their practice, which resulted in his “cooking the books.”  The second is that he was unaware of what happened.  Josephus devotes 30 chapters to Herod the Great.  In contrast his successors are scarcely mentioned.  Thus it appears well within the realm of probability that Josephus was unaware that Herod’s successors antedated the date on which they claimed to have commenced their reign.  (It should also be remembers these events did not occur during the adult life of Josephus.  Josephus’s situation is somewhat analogous to a veteran of Desert Storm writing about World War One.)The earliest coins found for any of Herod’s successors is “year 5.”  This is exactly what would be expected if they had claimed to have begun their rule in 4 B.C. but had not actually coined money until 1 A.D.—the year they truthfully began to reign. As mentioned above, Josephus says that Varus was governor of Syria at the time of Herod’s death.  It is not known who was governor of Syria around 1 A.D.  However, an inscription found near the villa of Varus speaks of a man who was twice governor of Syria.  It therefore seems safe to conclude that Varus was twice governor of Syria.  The first time around 6-5 B.C. and the second around 1 A.D. As stated above, the 8 B.C. taxation only applied to Roman citizens.  Supporters of the 4 B.C. death date for Herod’s death think it was the census requiring Mary and Joseph to undertake their journey to Bethlehem.  There is a better option. On February 5, 2 B.C. the Roman Senate awarded Augustas Caesar the title of “Pater Patriae” (Father of the Country).  It is thought by many that the census mentioned by Luke also required an oath of allegiance to Augustus Caesar.  Josephus states that a year or so before Herod died that over 6,000 Pharisees refused to pledge their good will to Caesar.  If an oath was administered as part of the census it is easy to understand how Josephus knew the number of non-compliant Pharisees; without a census it would be more formidable task. Orosius, a fifth century historian, also links an oath of allegiance to the census.  He identifies the census as occurring in 2 B.C.  Conducting a census took a long period of time, as it required both informing provincial leaders of what was expected as well as enrolling all the subjects of the empire.  Consequently this 2 B.C. census seems a perfect fit for the census mentioned by Luke if Christ were born in the spring of 1 B.C.  Refusing to take the oath of allegiance accompanying the 2 B.C. census might also explain the death of the Jewish patriots at a lunar eclipse preceding Herod’s death.  It should also be noted that Luke’s phrase “in those days a decree went forth” refers back to the birth of John the Baptist, in 2 B.C., making this an even better fit for the census that brought Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem so Joseph could be counted as being of the house and linage of David. One possibility for the Star of Bethlehem deserves serious consideration.  On June 17, 2 B.C. there was a conjunction of Jupiter and Venus rear the king-star, Regulus, in Leo.  The two planets seemed to merge.  In the 2000 years before and after this 2 B.C. conjunction there has never been another such perfect conjunction of Jupiter and Venus near Regulus.  The sign of the tribe of Judah, of course, is the lion.  Regulus, within Leo, is associated both with kings and with the kingdom of Judah.  Jupiter was the father god and was often associated with the birth of kings.  Venus was the mother god as well as the goddess of love and fertility.  Thus it is likely that the Magi seeing Jupiter and Venus join together in “marriage union” near Regulus would predict, not the birth of a king of Judah, but rather the conception of the king of Judah. This explanation for the Star of Bethlehem fits well for a 1 B.C. birth of Christ.  It also supports two ancient Christian traditions mentioned by a fourth century churchman named Epipanius.  The first is that Christ was conceived on June 20th, which is very close to the June 17th conjunction.  The second is that Mary’s pregnancy lasted 10 months. There was a Passover feast on April 9, 1 B.C.  The Law of Moses was interpreted as requiring parents to present a newborn child at the temple within 40 days of birth.  It is likely that Joseph and Mary would combine their enrollment in the Roman census together with a Passover visit to Jerusalem.  A trip to Jerusalem for Passover is the likely reason there was “no room at the inn” for them.  Jerusalem was always packed during Passover.  The uncertainties of travel being what they were in those days it is likely Mary and Joseph would try to arrive in Jerusalem a few days prior to Passover.  Thus a birth date for Jesus early in April of 1 B.C. seems probable, as that would put Mary and Joseph in Bethlehem shortly before Passover.  (Bethlehem is a suburb of Jerusalem located about 5 miles distant from the center of the larger city.  Then as now, those residing in the surrounding suburbs were consider to be “in Jerusalem” for Passover.) Shepherds are recorded as tending their flocks by night.  This is a common practice during the lambing season.  A Passover birth would coincide with the spring lambing season.  The Biblical mention of shepherds tending their flocks by night is consistent with a Passover birth in 1 B.C. If the “new star” was indeed a sign of Christ’s conception, rather than his birth, it might also help explain other events.  It would explain how the Magi had sufficient time to arrive when the Christ child was still an infant in or near Bethlehem.  Especially when one considers that it is likely Mary and Joseph would remain near Jerusalem in order to be able to present Jesus at the temple 40 days following his birth as was required by the Law of Moses.  Herod is reported to have killed the male infants of Bethlehem under age two after receiving the Magi.  It is likely that he wanted to take no chance that the Magi made an error.  Herod might have feared that an earlier conjunction—perhaps that of September 14, 3 B.C.—was the sign of either Christ’s conception or birth. There were other events in the skies during the pervious years that might also had made him select age two in order to be sure his perceived rival did not escape.  They are worth discussing as they also help us to understand why the Magi would view the June 17, 2 B.C. conjunction as the sign of Christ’s conception.Jupiter is brighter in the night sky than any star or planet except Venus.  As viewed from the Earth, planets generally move eastward through a series of constellations known as the Zodiac.  However, planets do not always move eastward, sometimes they move westward for a few months before again moving eastward.  This westward movement is known as retrograde motion.  (Retrograde motion occurs in the planets that are further from the Sun than is the Earth because these planets take longer to complete their orbit.  For example, Jupiter appears to move eastward until the Earth overtakes it in its orbit, then for a time Jupiter appears to move westward.  The effect is similar to what a person experiences when traveling in a car that overtakes another car.  At the moment the faster car overtakes the slower car, the slower car appears to move backward.) Astronomers tell us that on September 14, 3 B.C., Jupiter appeared to pass very close to the star Regulus, “the King’s star.”  This conjunction of Jupiter and Regulus appeared in the eastern sky.  In the following months at first Jupiter continued its eastward movement, it then—as viewed form the Earth—it stopped and moved westward for a period of time.  On February 17, 2 B.C. Jupiter passed even closer to Regulus than it had on September 14, 3 B.C.  On May 8, 2 B.C. Jupiter passed Regulus a third time.  Thus, over a period of nearly eight months the Magi saw Jupiter appear to draw a circle, or crown, above “the King’s star,” beginning in the east.  Astrologers would probably have predicated the coming birth of a king in Judea after observing this movement. Then on the evening of June 17, 2 B.C. as the sky became dark over Babylonia, Jupiter and Venus drew closer and closer together until at 8:51 p.m. that night over Babylon they appeared to merge into a single, brilliant star—a marriage union—in the western sky.  It would to be seen as pointing towards Bethlehem.  Thus it is likely the Magi concluded that a new king of Jews, the promised Messiah, had been conceived and shortly thereafter began their journey to worship him.  It is possible a ten-month pregnancy was needed for the Magi to arrive in Jerusalem when Jesus was born.  Or that with a shorter pregnancy Mary would have delivered in Nazareth.  (Information regarding the above conjunctions is taken from Cosmic Discoveries, by David and Wendee Levy, published by Prometheus Books.  The author of this paper is responsible for the conclusions.) The only date given in the Gospels that can be cross referenced with external dating systems is given by Luke (3:1) when he states that John the Baptist began his ministry “in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.”  Luke (3:23) also indicates that shortly after John the Baptist began his ministry that Jesus went to him to be baptized.  Additionally we are told that Jesus was about 30 years of age when he was baptized.  As has been mentioned before, attainment of age 30 was required under the Law of Moses for commencement of the work performed by both John and Jesus.  It would be incongruous with the rest of his life for Christ to delay beginning his ministry past age 30.  That John and Jesus would both delay the commencement of their ministry, and delay it the same number of years, seems highly unlikely. Following Christ’s baptism the Gospels record that Jesus spent forty days in the wilderness where he finished preparing for his mortal ministry.  The probability is Jesus was baptized shortly before his thirtieth birthday and emerged from the wilderness shortly after turning thirty, at which time he began his ministry. It is most likely that the 15th year of Tiberius was calculated from the death of Augustus in 14 A.D.  If so, John the Baptist began his ministry between August/September 28 A.D. and August/September 29. A.D.  Some have suggested that Tiberius calculated his reign from his co-regency with Augustus.  The early Christian writer Tertullian used both methods.  With the expectation of Tertullian (who used both methods), there are no documents, coins, or other evidence that Tiberius calculated his reign from his co-regency.  Thus it is most likely Christ was baptized in 28 or 29 A.D. when he was nearing his 30th birthday.  This is consistent with his birth having occurred in 1 B.C. and his crucifixion in 33 A.D. The Gospel of John specifically names three Passovers, including the one that occurred when Christ was crucified.  (See John 2:13, John 6:4, and John 11:55.)  John also implies an extra year between the first two Passovers because he discusses a spring harvest plus another Jewish feast is mentioned.  (See John 4:35,45)  Consequently it is generally accepted that Christ’s mortal ministry lasted not less than three and one-half years and included at least four Passovers.  If Christ were baptized about age thirty and his mortal ministry lasted between three and four years then he should have been 33 or 34 at the time of his death.  This is totally consistent with a birth shortly before Passover in 1 B.C. and crucifixion during the 33 A.D. Passover.  When Christ was crucified, Pilate was the Roman procurator and Caiaphas was the Jewish high priest.  Historical records indicate this means the crucifixion had to have occurred between 26 and 36 A.D.  If Christ began his ministry in 28-29 A.D. when he was about 30 and in the 15th (or 16th) year of the reign of Tiberius then after four Passovers had passed it would indicate he was crucified in 32-33 A.D.  If his ministry were to have begun in 26 A.D. (as would be the case if his ministry were reckoned from the co-regency of Tiberias) then Christ was crucified about 29 A.D.  Thus the internal dating of Gospels is consistent with secular records regarding the date of the crucifixion.